Abstract
This chapter reviews the recent literature on psychosocial environmental risk factors for conduct disorder (CD) and oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD). The chapter begins with a brief overview of measurement issues relating to the identification of environmental risk factors, followed by a discussion of more general models of environmental risk. The remainder of the chapter examines environmental risk factors at different levels of analysis, from the family to the neighborhood, and to the community or societal level. The main theme arising from this discussion is the future challenge provided in attempting to integrate analyses of antisocial behavior across these domains.