Abstract
There are inherent conflicts between conservation management and hunting interests for valued introduced invasive species in Aotearoa, New Zealand. This thesis has been undertaken as a part of the Te Apārangi Royal Society Marsden Fund research programme "Good Nature Bad Nature – The Social Dimensions of Introduced Species". The primary aim of this research was to identify sociocultural values for introduced species. Pigs were introduced to Aotearoa through trade with whalers and explorers in the late 18th century and have played a significant role in food security since. However, they are invasive and, therefore, also cause significant ecological and economic harm. I utilised a focused case study approach, which investigated Whanganui-based pig hunters and the sociocultural values they hold for wild pigs (poaka) and hunting. To ask the question, "How do pig hunters value wild pigs?" Three research objectives were used to structure interview conversations and to determine the answers to the research question: 1. To identify pig hunter interests in wild pigs, 2. To identify and describe the hunting practice associated with hunting wild pigs 3. To identify whether pig hunters recognise wild pigs as a pest or as a taonga.
Whanganui pig hunters and institutional representatives with interests in managing poaka were invited to participate in semi-structured conversational interviews. Kaupapa Māori and community participatory research principles guided the conduct and direction of interviews and analysis. Twenty-four participants were interviewed, and thematic analysis was utilised to express the voices and insights of the pig hunters. Interview narratives provided a deep understanding of the values, tensions and potential synergies held by the pig hunters and pest management authorities that previous ecological and quantitative studies have not identified. Pig hunting contributes to livelihoods and wellbeing through food security while also providing for the spiritual, environmental, and recreational experiences hunters seek to deepen through their environmental connections. Particularly for remote communities, where poaka play a substantial role in subsistence, as community connectors, and for the cultural value they hold as a substitute for the indigenous species that were traditionally harvested. Pig hunting is more than a simple outdoor activity; it demonstrates wellbeing outcomes beyond the individual hunter, extending wide into their communities and environments. Three key findings from this research programme have been identified as adding to new knowledge.
Firstly, hunting is a relational exchange between different actors. In te ao Māori (the Māori worldview), this relational exchange is described as manaakitanga. To manaaki, the mana of the actors is to interact with and enhance mauri (lifeforce) towards mauri ora (complete vitality). Hunters' values are established, and their standing within their identity as a hunter is impacted by how well the hunter has developed their mana within the relational exchange of these actors.
Secondly, like the environments they hunt, hunters are adaptable to diverse conditions, including various environments and sociocultural conditions. Following a hunting ethic passed to them by their mentors helps them determine the best practice for each situation. Various ontologies form the foundations of hunting ethics. However, hunters are mainly concerned with minimising the experiences of harm for all actors involved in the hunt. Hunters deeply understand poaka behaviour and how this changes according to changing conditions. Māori hunters have drawn from and adapted mātauranga (traditional ecological knowledge, TEK) to inform hunting practice. Pākehā hunters have gained environmental knowledge through observation (local ecological knowledge, LEK) and shared experiences with Māori hunters.
Thirdly, hunters interviewed for this research were community-focused and expressed aspirations for pest management to benefit the community. There are unrealised gains in pest management that could be further understood through partnership, co-governance, co-planning and co-management for pest control, collaborating with the communities that have interests in the impacts of pest control, for example, mana whenua, local hunters and local people with conservation interests.
Sociocultural values are the beliefs, values, traditions and habits that influence behaviour; they are constructed from our cultural and spiritual ontologies, inherited, learned and formed environmentally, socially and politically. Poaka have instrumental, relational and intrinsic value due to their value as a food source, as a facilitator of cultural practice and as an actor in fulfilling people’s livelihoods and wellbeing, allowing them to live a good life. Poaka are necessary for pig hunters' wellbeing (hauora) and their pursuit of living a good life. This invokes a value-based ethical approach to hunting them, which is guided by the aspirations they hold for their human and non-human communities. Adaptive management solutions to control pests could be further developed to ensure that they actively plan for regenerative outcomes in those communities connected to pest control operations. Embracing biocultural approaches to the governance, planning, management and implementation of pest control is environmentally and socially just. Regenerative adaptive management approaches, which are not necessarily too different from biocultural approaches, offer the possibility to reconnect communities to nature, where programmes designed to enhance nature directly enhance human communities.