Abstract
The use of post-earthquake cordons as a tool to support emergency managers after major seismic events has been documented around the world. Although their use is more of an exception than the rule as a response strategy in the aftermath of earthquakes, cordons have become more common over the last decade. Once established, cordons have significant impact on the recovery of the city and its people, dependent on their spatial and temporal extent. Although there is growing interest in this subject area, limited research has investigated the inherent complexities of post-earthquake cordons. There is inadequate understanding of their meaning, value, and feasibility, as well as the processes associated with establishment and management of cordons. This research aims to fill the gap in knowledge by providing a comprehensive understanding of cordons and their implications. Limited academic literature exists on the topic of post-earthquake cordons; therefore, this study presents an exploration of the theoretical, disciplinary, and historical underpinnings of the cordon concept, including ethical and legal considerations. This provides the foundation for understanding recent, observed occurrences of cordon use in practice in four cities across three different continents.
This research adopted a comparative case study research design approach, which was chosen to provide in-depth insights into the multi-faceted, transdisciplinary nature of post-earthquake cordons. In total four cases were chosen where post-earthquake cordons have been established at different temporal (from a few months to years) and spatial scales (several buildings to entire city centres). The four study sites include two in New Zealand (Christchurch, Mw 6.3 Christchurch earthquake, 2011; Wellington, Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake, 2016), one in Italy (L’Aquila earthquake, Mw 6.3, 2009) and the final one is in Nepal (Kathmandu Valley, Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake, 2015), drawing upon lessons learned in contrasting socio-economic, cultural, legal, and governance contexts. Qualitative data was collected through detailed, semi-structured interviews with key informants sampled through purposive and snowball sampling. Selection of interviewees was based on the participants direct and/or indirect involvement in decision making/management of cordons or if they had significant knowledge of, or influence on the cordoning processes. The participants were from varying backgrounds and roles i.e., emergency managers, council members, business representatives, insurance representatives, demolition consultants, police, politicians, communication managers, community leader, and academics. In total, 44 interviews were carried out. The data sets were coded in the NVivo software, grouped based on underlying themes and concepts and then analysed inductively.
The results of the research show that post-earthquake cordons are used primarily as a tool to control access for the purpose of life safety and security, but over time cordons act as a transitional space which can also be adapted to support recovery. A framework, Cordon Operations & management, and Decision-making following Earthquakes (CODE) is presented to describe the practical considerations for cordon use. The analysis shows that, the two key aspects of ‘decision making’ and ‘operations & management’ interact as part of a complex system driven by governance and communication structures, and processes. The underlying complexity arises in large part due to the multitude of sectors and response actions affected by cordons: evacuation, law, politics, economics, culture, business, temporary housing, civil liberties, and available resources. The complexity further increases as the duration of cordon establishment is extended. The results also show that cordoning processes and associated impacts are context dependent i.e., site specific considerations such as level of insurance in New Zealand, heritage protection in L’Aquila, cultural nuances, and lack of institutional capacity in Nepal significantly affected cordons and their placement. dditionally, post-earthquake cordons are often controversial and issues of noncompliance and/or emonstrations against the top-down enforcement of cordons were observed, especially when maintained for a long period of time.
In theory, post-earthquake cordons can be understood through a framework of risk, ethics, and control (including legal considerations) which interact in a continuous cord of tension and balance. This thesis presents the Ethics for Rs (E4Rs) framework to explain the importance of ethical considerations for establishing and maintaining post-earthquake cordons. As such, post earthquake cordons should be avoided if possible, and removed as soon as practicable to expedite community, business, and social capital recovery. This research recommends that emergency management incorporate cordon-specific plans as an integral part of a wider disaster management framework. Cordon planning should be undertaken in seismic risk prone urban settings around the world, taking into account the nuanced cultural and governance considerations in the local context. Finally, this thesis suggests that the E4Rs framework is applicable beyond post-earthquake cordon contexts and should be part of broader disaster management framework. The emphasis on ethical consideration posited by the E4Rs framework will support and improve current disaster management approaches across all four phases of disaster: reduction, readiness, response, and recovery.