Abstract
Ruku kai (diving for seafood) is the traditional Māori (Indigenous person to Aotearoa) practice of diving for kaimoana (seafood) (Meredith, 2006; Moorfield, 2011). ‘Ruku’ translates to ‘dive’ and ‘kai’ refers to food, more specifically kaimoana (Moorfield, 2011). Ruku kai is the reclamation of Māori diving knowledge and practice to enhance positive hauora (health and wellbeing) Māori (Māori perspective of health) outcomes. There is limited research that has explicitly examined ruku kai despite Meredith’s (2006) brief exploration of Māori diving history and traditions. While this does not specifically use the term ‘ruku kai’, Meredith states that traditionally “Māori dived without any breathing equipment to collect seafood” (n.p); thus, this thesis reflects the traditional practice of ruku kai in the form of freediving. Ruku kai remains a sustainable practice for Māori as it provides access to bounties of Tangaroa (deity of the sea) (Meredith, 2006; Hanara, 2017). For generations Māori have engaged in ruku kai as a means of sustainable living, however there is a gap in mainstream research that exclusively examines this. Consequently, there are no studies that explore a Māori perspective of diving through ruku kai and the various elements that are incorporated such as ancestral connection to diving, Māori water safety for diving, meaningful relationships that inform diving, and Māori empowerment through diving. In 2020 the New Zealand Underwater Association (NZUA) conducted a survey of recreational divers. From this survey, 65% of recreational divers noted kai gathering as the main motivator, where males represented 86% of total respondents. Moreover, in the 2022 Water Safety New Zealand (WSNZ) drowning report, Māori are reported to be disproportionately affected by drowning incidents and fatalities, more specifically within underwater activities such as kai gathering (Phillips, 2020; WSNZ 2022).This shows that while the popularity of ruku kai grows, there is also an increase of Māori disproportionately contributing to kai gathering related fatalities. Given the rising popularity of diving, the concerning drowning rates among Māori, and the limited literature concerning Māori and diving, this research is crucial to improve hauora Māori outcomes. With the recent renaissance of Māori knowledge and practice throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century, it is proven that Māori succeed best when efforts to enhance Māori are by Māori, for Māori, and with Māori (Smith, 1997). Thus, this research provides a by Māori, for Māori, with Māori approach towards reclaiming Māori health, knowledge, and practice through diving.
The overall aim of this research was to explore Māori perspectives of diving through ruku kai. This was explored by (1) the analysis of pūrākau as stories of ancestral Māori connection to diving, (2) exploring the development, application, and implications of a Māori water safety programme for whānau to enhance positive hauora Māori outcomes in diving, (3) examining the current role of Māori diving knowledge and practice for fisheries management in Ngāti Kahungunu, and (4) highlighting perspectives of diving from kōrero with water-practitioners through Tangaroa Ara Rau (a collective of Māori researchers and practitioners passionate about connecting people to water).
The methodological framework used for this research was Kaupapa Māori (Māori purpose) Theory (Smith, 1997). Kaupapa Māori Theory is a methodological framework rooted in Indigenous Māori perspectives and values, emphasising collective wellbeing, cultural authenticity, and self-determination in research, policy, and practice (Smith, 1997; Eketone, 2008; Smith, 2017; Moko-Painting et al, 2023). Through Kaupapa Māori Theory I adopted six kaupapa Māori principles. The principles of Whakapapa (genealogy system) and Te Reo (language) were used to organise the thesis, and the principles of Taonga Tuku Iho (ancestral treasures), Kaupapa (collective philosophy), Te Tiriti o Waitangi (the Treaty of Waitangi), and Tino Rangatiratanga (self-determination) were used to each frame an analytical chapter. Additionally, I used four methods in this research. Firstly, I employed pūrākau as method where I analysed ancestral narratives to reveal kura huna (hidden messages) of ancestral connection to ruku kai. The second was praxis as method which explored the practical engagement of ruku kai towards developing a Kaupapa Māori water safety programme. The third was wānanga (discussions/forum of learning) as method where I examined the findings of wānanga that explored insights to the current and desired states of local fisheries management as the system that oversees ruku kai practices in Ngāti Kahungunu. The fourth and final was kaikōrero (speaker) as method where I analysed kōrero (conversations) held through Tangaroa Ara Rau with esteemed water practitioners that have a connection to ruku kai. Kura huna analysis was employed for the analysis process (Aranga, 2009; Reilly, 2010; Paora, 2023). Kura huna is a traditional method of knowledge transmission and dissemination (Aranga, 2009; Paora, 2023). Kura huna analysis involved analysing data from the research to reveal hidden messages.
There were four main findings from this research. These were ruku kai is (1) Taonga Tuku Iho and storytelling, (2) Kaupapa and praxis, (3) Te Tiriti and fisheries management, and (4) Tino Rangatiratanga and diving. The first main finding argued that ruku kai is the preservation, dissemination, and perpetuation of ancestral Māori diving knowledge and practice. From this finding, a Māori perspective of diving is that ruku kai is ancestral Māori diving knowledge and practice. The second main finding highlighted that ruku kai is a collective aspiration that requires continues praxis for whānau Māori to benefit from effectively and to safely enhance positive hauora Māori outcomes. From this finding, a Māori perspective of diving is that ruku kai is Māori diving safety knowledge and praxis. The third main finding situated ruku kai as a cornerstone that examines the sustainable relationship between tangata whenua (people of the land), tangata tiriti (people of the treaty) and the moana to inform Ngāti Kahungunu fisheries management. From this finding, a Māori perspective of diving is that ruku kai is Māori diving knowledge and practice of fisheries management. The final finding explored a Māori perspective of diving through ruku kai as the empowerment of Māori diving knowledge and practice through tangata moana and autonomy. From this finding, a Māori perspective of diving is that ruku kai is the empowerment of Māori diving knowledge and practice.
This research addresses a Māori perspective of diving to enhance positive hauora Māori outcomes. The implications for this research will be beneficial on both a national and international scale. Diving for kai gathering purposes is the most common factor in Aotearoa (Land of the Long White Cloud – New Zealand) that influences recreational diving where Māori males also make up a large population and largely contribute to drowning fatalities (NZUA, 2020; WSNZ, 2022). This research will contribute to Water Safety New Zealand’s Kia Maanu Kia Ora (stay afloat stay alive) programme by providing a Māori perspective of diving safety knowledge and practice. It will also assist the fisheries sector by reclaiming Māori diving knowledge and practice for fisheries management. Furthermore, the practice of foraging and gathering food from the sea through fishing and diving practices garners global interests and attention from diverse perspectives as a guideline for sustainable living (Dimmock, 2007; Farrell, 2022).This research will contribute to national and international perspectives of diving for kai gathering purposes by highlighting Indigenous ancestral connections to diving, exploring Indigenous dive safety measures, understanding Indigenous contributions to fisheries management that impacts diving, and diverse Indigenous knowledge and practices that pertain to kai gathering.
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