Abstract
The anticipated effects of climate change in Aotearoa New Zealand include more frequent and intense rainfalls; more frequent droughts; and sea level rise increasing the risk of erosion, saltwater intrusion and coastal flooding (Ministry for the Environment, 2021). As of 2019 15,000 New Zealanders live almost on the high tide mark, 71,000 within a metre and 240,000 within 2 metres of the mean high tide line (Kulp and Stauss, 2019). With projected sea level rise projections many New Zealanders, their homes and public infrastructure are in danger of being inundated. Climate change can have both physical and physiological impacts on those impacted, to help mitigate and prevent these, adaptation measures need to be implemented sooner rather than later (Siders and Ajibade, 2021).
Climate change adaptation takes one of three forms these are defend, accommodate and retreat (Thomsen, Smith, and Keys, 2012). This research focuses on the retreat option, specifically pre-emptive managed retreat. Managed retreat is defined as “the application of coastal zone management and mitigation tools designed to move existing and planned development out of the path of both short- and long-term coastal hazards” (Neal et al., 2017, pg. 1). While there are other forms of adaptation, this research focuses on retreat as while other adaptation measures alter the environment to stop impacts, managed retreat instead aims to work with nature to reduce physical exposure (Hanna, White and Glavovic, 2019). Managed retreat as a result can reduce hazard exposure and increase resilience of vulnerable communities, while also protecting the environment and amenity values. With a one-time upfront cost and no ongoing maintenance or emergency management requirements, managed retreat i s a cost-effective, long-term solution for hazard risk management. This research utilises qualitative methods, including in-depth interviews with experts and practitioners located both in Aotearoa New Zealand and the United States of America combined with both a policy analysis and case study analysis to answer the following.
The research asks what the current policy and legislative framework is, and whether this is appropriate. It explores the barriers and challenges to managed retreat within this regulatory framework, as well as socio-political challenges and barriers. The research found that currently there is poor regulatory framework to enable managed retreat and various socio-economic barriers. Once the policy, social and economic barriers are explored the research makes six recommendations to help address them which are:
1. Establish clear roles and responsibilities that provide a mandate for local authorities and decision-makers to engage in managed retreat projects as climate change adaptation responses.
2. Amend legislation to address private property rights to enable local authorities and decision makers the ability to no longer service an area or to modify or extinguish existing use rights if considered necessary to enable managed retreat.
3. Establish compulsory meaningful engagement with communities and Māori when considering pre-emptive managed retreat.
4. Recommend the inclusion of hazard signals, triggers, thresholds and monitoring into plans.
5. Establish a Climate Change Adaptation fund which would enable pre-emptive managed retreat.
6. Ensure that vulnerable communities are provided with subsides and aid to ensure equitable outcomes