Abstract
We review studies examining empathy (empathic concern) in infants and children. The traditional claim is that empathy developed over the second year of life such that by 18 to 24 months children were often showing signs of empathy, and that empathy is enabled by children’s developing sense of self. However, over the past 25 years, researchers have often concluded that infants under 1 year of age are empathic, and that signs of self-understanding are in place under 1 year of age. We review the methodology of these studies, asking whether things such as brow furrowing, hypothesis testing and interest genuinely measure empathy. We point out that most tasks either lack control conditions or have inadequate controls. We also question whether measures passed by infants measure self-recognition and empathy. We conclude that the clearest evidence for both is still around 18 to 24 months of age.