Abstract
Many bacteriophages encode anti-CRISPR (Acr) proteins that inhibit bacterial CRISPR–Cas immune systems. Rapid acr gene expression upon phage entry enables CRISPR–Cas neutralization but can impact phage fitness if unregulated. Therefore, Acr production is often controlled by distinct families of co-encoded anti-CRISPR-associated (Aca) proteins, which are usually helix-turn-helix (HTH) regulators that bind DNA within acr–aca operon promoters. Previously, we demonstrated that the Aca2 family additionally represses Acr production translationally by binding structured RNA motifs within the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of the acr–aca mRNA. Here, through systematic bioinformatic analyses, we provide evidence of structured RNA motifs in the 5′ UTRs of operons encoding members of other Aca families and show that Aca1 also specifically binds its cognate RNA motif. Additionally, many Aca proteins are predicted to regulate not only their own but also adjacent operons with potential anti-defence genes. Indeed, we show that Aca14, newly identified in this study, represses two predicted anti-defence operons. Aca14 is a ribbon-helix-helix domain protein, revealing regulatory diversity beyond the canonical HTH Aca family members. Collectively, our findings expand our understanding of acr regulation in mobile genetic elements and reveal novel mechanisms by which phages fine-tune anti-defence gene expression. Graphical AbstractFor image description, please refer to the figure legend and surrounding text.