Abstract
The Stockton coal mine lies at 700–1100
m above sea level in a mountainous orographic precipitation zone on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand. Rainfall exceeds 6000
mm/year and arrives with frequent flood events that can deliver >
200
mm/day. Streams vary in discharges by up to two orders of magnitude over a time scale of hours. Pyritic waste rock at the mine interacts chemically with even the most intense rainfall, and almost all runoff is acidic to some degree. In the most intense rain event recorded in this study (>
10
mm/hour), dilution of acid mine drainage (AMD) occurred and pH rose from 3 to >
5 over several hours, with stream discharge at a monitoring point rising from <
0.5 to >
100
cumecs. However, most rain events of similar magnitude are less intense, longer duration, and only raise AMD pH to ~
4 with similar high discharges. Results presented here for Stockton confirm that it is the intensity of rain events on the hourly scale, rather than the total amount of rainwater delivered to the site, that governs the amount and composition of AMD generated during flood events. Stream discharge loads of dissolved iron and aluminium range from ~
20 to 1000
kg/hour. Dissolved sulfate and acidity loads are typically ~
500
kg/hour but can exceed 20
tonnes/hour in rain events.
First flush effects observable elsewhere around the world involving peak metal loads following dry periods or seasonal changes are not obvious at Stockton due to the high and variable rainfall environment. Dissolved Fe concentrations may be limited in runoff waters by precipitation of jarosite and schwertmannite, especially when rainfall is sufficiently intense to raise pH to 4 or higher. These minerals are widespread in the exposed waste rock on site. Likewise, precipitation of alunite may occur as pH rises in rain events, but no field evidence for this has been observed.
► Water chemistry and discharge flow rates have been determined for acid mine drainage in extreme rainfall events. ► AMD and discharge have been quantified in real time (every 15
minutes). ► Runoff from extreme rain events has low pH, showing that water–rock reactions occur on a time scale of minutes to days. ► Dilution and pH rise by rainwater incursion are rare and short-lived (hours). ► Mineral dissolution outweighs mineral precipitation in rain events.