Abstract
In a changing environment, vacant niches can be filled either by adaptation of local taxa or range-expanding invading species. The relative tempo of these patterns is of key interest in the modern age of climate change. Aotearoa New Zealand has been a hotspot of biogeographic research for decades due to its long-term isolation and dramatic geological history. An island with high levels of faunal endemicity, it is a system well suited to studying the relative effects of in situ evolution versus dispersal in determining faunal assemblages, while its turbulent climate and geological history provide valuable insights into the evolutionary impacts of environmental changes. Such investigations are of urgent importance given predicted climate change and human impacts rapidly affecting environments globally. Here, we analyse the divergence dates of nearly all endemic Aotearoa New Zealand bird species from their overseas relatives to assess the role of environmental changes in driving speciation and colonisation, with special regard to cooling climate during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. We uncover a wave of colonisation events by Australian open-habitat adapted species since the Pliocene that peaked at the beginning of the Pleistocene. Furthermore, we highlight an even distribution of divergence dates in forest-adapted taxa through time, consistent with millions of years of extensive forest cover. Finally, we note parallels to the modern-day establishment of new bird populations from Australia and suggest this is largely influenced by anthropogenic land-use patterns. This research contributes to the growing body of work recognising the long-lasting impacts of Pleistocene climate change on Aotearoa New Zealand's avifauna, and reinforces biological invasions as a key evolutionary response to changing environmental conditions.