Abstract
It is expected that any processing and handling of lees (e.g., drying, storage or removal of residual alcohol using various concentration techniques) will expose the material to oxidation and the consequences of oxidation on the biological activity of the lees and the lees extracts are unknown. The effects of oxidation (using horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide model system) on phenolic composition and their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities were investigated in (i) a flavonoid model system composed of catechin and grape seed tannin (Cat:GST) extracts at various ratios and (ii) in Pinot noir (PN) and Riesling (RL) wine lees samples. For the flavonoid model, oxidation had a minor or no impact on total phenol content but increased (p < 0.05) total tannin content from approximately 145 to 1200 mu g epicatechin equivalent/mL. An opposite observation was found in the PN lees samples where oxidation reduced (p < 0.05) the total phenol content (TPC) by approximately 10 mg GAE/g dry matter (DM) lees. The mean degree of the polymerization (mDP) values of the oxidized flavonoid model samples ranged from 15 to 30. The Cat:GST ratio and interaction of the Cat:GST ratio with oxidation were found significantly to affect the mDP values of the flavonoid model samples (p < 0.05). Oxidation increased the mDP values in all oxidized flavonoid model samples except for Cat:GST 0:100. The mDP values of the PN lees samples ranged from 7 to 11 and remained the same after oxidation. There was no significant reduction in the antioxidant activities (DPPH and ORAC) of the model and wine lees after oxidation except the PN1 lees sample (decreased from 3.5 to 2.8 mg Trolox equivalent/g DM extracts). In addition, no correlation was observed between mDP (approximately 10 to 30) and DPPH (0.09) and ORAC assay (-0.22), which indicates that the higher mDP resulted in a poor ability to scavenge DPPH center dot and AAPH center dot free radicals. Antimicrobial activities of the flavonoid model were found to be improved after the oxidation treatment against S. aureus and E. coli with minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) of 1.56 and 0.39 mg/mL. This may indicate that new compounds were formed during the oxidation treatment, and these compounds showed more effective microbicidal activity. LC-MS work is required in the future to identify the compounds that are newly formed during the oxidation of the lees.