Abstract
Subglacial processes influence the large-scale behaviour of glaciers and determine the geological processes that occur at the ice-substrate interface. In this paper we focus on subglacial deformation beneath a cold-based glacier resting on permafrost. We ask what are the drivers of subglacial permafrost deformation, how is strain distributed beneath glaciers with a permafrost substrate, how is strain transmitted from the glacier into the substrate, and how is deformed permafrost incorporated into the basal zone of the glacier? To address these questions a tunnel excavated in the margin of Wright Lower Glacier in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica to observe the structure of the basal zone and bed of the glacier and to monitor basal ice deformation over a period of 4 years. The tunnel revealed a stacked sequence of stratified debris-bearing and clean ice layers, and thick rafts of frozen sediment. Isotopic and gas analyses reveal that despite the low local temperature of the basal ice (−18.5 °C), liquid water has played an important role in the formation of this basal sequence. The rafts of frozen sediment contain well preserved sedimentary structures and algae layers that show the material has been entrained from the underlying permafrost. Deformation measurements made with a combination of displacement transducers, strain arrays, and plumb-lines show that strain and motion within the basal zone are heterogeneous and that strain is transmitted through the permafrozen sediment and into intra-sediment ice layers. The distribution of strain in the basal zone produces a compound velocity profile resembling the deformation patterns inferred from deformation structures in Pleistocene permafrost and also resembles profiles associated with subglacial sediment deformation driven by hydrogeological processes. We conclude that ice-rich permafrost is readily deformed by glaciers and that there is no clear boundary between basal ice and deforming permafrost.